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Papers - NOMURA Koji

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"Increasing Vulnerability of the Japanese Economy to Energy Price Fluctuations" (in Japanese)

Koji Nomura

RCGW Discussion Paper (Research Center of Global Warming, Research Institute of Capital Formation, Development Bank of Japan) ( 63 ) 2019.08

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Single Work

本稿は、日本経済における実質単位エネルギーコスト（RUEC）とその日米格差の測定によって、エネルギー価格高騰による経済的な耐性を評価することを目的としている。日米比較によれば、日米RUEC格差は米国のシェール革命以降に急速に拡大しており、近年では米国に比して60%上回る水準にまで拡大している。それは戦後のピークに達する水準であり、エネルギー価格変動に対する日本経済の脆弱性が相対的に高まっていることを示している。日米RUEC格差の拡大要因は、エネルギー生産性格差の縮小と実質エネルギー価格差の拡大の両面によっている。近年、米国のエネルギー生産性の改善率は高く、日本の優位性はこの20年間で半減している。
日本経済における長期的な傾向をみれば、RUECが上昇へと転じた転換点は1990年代半ばである。オイルショック後に強化されたエネルギー価格高騰に対する耐性は、この20年間に再び脆弱化している。第一の要因は、おもに賃金率低下によって誘導されたデフレ型の実質エネルギー価格の上昇である。1990年代半ば以降、二度のオイルショックを含む期間（1973–1995年）に比して、名目エネルギー価格の上昇率は1/3ほどに縮小されたが、実質エネルギー価格の上昇率としては年率1.0%から1.5%へとむしろ高まっている。デフレ型のRUEC上昇は、エネルギー価格高騰に対する耐性の脆弱化がエネルギー多消費産業のみではなく、より広範な産業活動へ及ぶことを意味している。第二の要因は、エネルギー生産性改善における低迷である。実質エネルギー価格上昇が逓増傾向にありながらも、安価に利用可能な省エネ技術は限られたものとなり、エネルギー生産性の改善率は逓減している。
長期化するデフレ経済は、エネルギー価格高騰に対する脆弱性も増大させてきた。日本経済におけるエネルギー価格高騰への耐性強化のためには、再エネ推進のためのコスト拡大の抑制、原子力や石炭利用を含めた適切なエネルギーミックスの実現とともに、労働生産性の改善を通じた賃金上昇や高付加価値化など、デフレ経済からの脱却のための経済政策が求められる。

"Benchmark 2011 Integrated Estimates of the Japan-U.S. Price Level Index for Industry Outputs"

Koji Nomura, Kozo Miyagawa, and Jon D. Samuels

BEA Working Paper (Bureau of Economic Analysis, the U.S. Department of Commerce) 2018.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

This paper provides new benchmark estimates of industry-level price differentials between Japan and the U.S. for 2011 based on a bilateral price accounting model anchored to the Japan-US input-output tables. We apply the model to translate available demand-side data on purchaser’s price PPPs for final uses (e.g. the Eurostat-OECD PPPs) and intermediate uses (e.g. the METI survey) to unmeasured producer’s price PPPs for industry output. These PPPs allow us to produce price level indexes at the industry level, which we use to assess price competitiveness between Japan and the U.S. Under the nominal exchange rate of 110.6 yen per dollar as of the beginning of July 2018, we estimate that producers in Japan have a pricing advantage in 66 of 106 industries in the manufacturing sector, and in 24 of 50 industries in the service sector. We conclude that price competitiveness of Japanese service industries has considerably improved in the more recent time period. However, Japanese producers have a significant price disadvantage in comparison to their U.S. counterparts in electricity and gas supply, and most of the agricultural producing industries.

"Measurement of Depreciation Rates using Microdata from Disposal Survey of Japan"

Koji Nomura and Yutaka Suga

The 35th IARIW General Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark 2018.08

Research paper (other academic), Joint Work, Lead author, Last author, Corresponding author

This paper estimates the asset service lives (ASL), the rates of depreciation, and the declining balance rates (DBR) based on a finely-defined classification of assets, which distinguishes 369 asset types, using data on ASL and aged-prices of disposed assets collected in the Survey on Capital Expenditures and Disposals from 2006 to 2014 in Japan. This survey collected 1,111,913 data of disposed assets from business accounts of private corporations, of which 936,861 are defined as retired assets acquired new and are used to estimate the survival profiles, and of which 84,291 are defined as sold assets for continued uses with positive prices are used to estimate the age-price profiles.
The Japan’s rates of geometric depreciation estimated in this study are broadly similar to the estimates at Statistics Canada (Baldwin, Liu, and Tanguay, 2015), but considerably higher than those used in the U.S. BEA (2013), e.g. 7.5%, 7.3%, and 3.2%, respectively, for industrial building construction, 7.6%, 6.7%, and 2.5% for office buildings, 29.1%, 27.9%, and 19.3% for automobiles, 24.4%, 24.9%, and 11.2% for telecommunication equipment, and 17.9%, 17.2%, and 11.0% for industrial machinery. The sources in these gaps are due to the shorter ASL and the higher DBR in Japan and Canada, compared to the U.S. The exceptional asset is computers. Japan’s rate of depreciation for computers is estimated as 29.6%, compared to 43.1% in Canada and 33.9% in the U.S. The gap is originated from much longer ASL observed in Japan (8.0 years on average), compared to Canada (4.9 years).

"Rebalancing Benchmark Input-Output Production System by Revision in Margin Matrix"

Koji Nomura and Kozo Miyagawa

Economic Statistics Research (Keizai Sangyo Toukei Kyokai) 46 ( I ) 29 - 55 2018.06

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

産業連関表（基本表）における卸・小売マージンは、日本の国民経済計算体系（JSNA）での商業生産額のベンチマーク推計値となるとともに、商品別マージン率はコモディティフローへと組み込まれ、GDP統計の精度に対して直接・間接的に大きな影響を与えている。野村・宮川・新井（2017）では産業連関表における商業マージン額について、その推計における諸課題を検討し、とくにはじめての「経済センサス–活動調査」に基づく2011年表において大幅な過小推計にあることを指摘している。本稿では、その再検討とともに基本分類レベルでのマージン表の改訂値を求め、産業連関体系のリバランスを通じてGDPにあたえる時系列的な影響の評価をおこなう。本稿での推計結果によれば、商業マージンの過小推計バイアスによるGDPとしての欠落は1995年では4.8兆円、2000年5.1兆円、2005年6.6兆円であり、2011年では25.6兆円と評価される。そうした改訂による名目GDP成長率としての影響は、2000年代半ばまでは年率0.1%ポイント未満と軽微であるが、2005–2011年では年率0.6%ポイントほど（年平均マイナス1.07%成長からマイナス0.44%成長へ）の上方改訂となる。現行のGDP統計に内在する過小推計バイアスは、かなり蓋然性が高いと考えられる諸仮定のもとで導かれたものであり、2011年基準JSNAにおけるGDP統計の再検討が求められよう。

"Progress on Measuring the Industry Origins of the Japan-U.S. Productivity Gap"

Dale W. Jorgenson, Koji Nomura, and Jon D. Samuels

Fifth World KLEMS Conference, Harvard University 2018.06

Research paper (other academic), Joint Work

This paper reports recent progress in measuring price level indices and productivity gaps for Japanese and U.S. industries between 1955 and 2015. Price competitiveness is driven mainly by monetary policies in the two countries, but productivity gaps reflect relative progress in technology at the industry level. Using our new measure of the price level, we find that Japan lost price competitiveness with the U.S. in the late 1980’s, following the Plaza Accord of 1985. Japan did not regain price competitiveness until 2015 in response to rapid depreciation of the Japanese yen by the Bank of Japan’s monetary policy of quantitative easing under Governor Haruhiko Kuroda. In this paper we discuss the conceptual issues involved, document the data requirements, and describe improvements in the data and methods since our earlier paper, Jorgenson, Nomura, and Samuels (2016). A major improvement results from new benchmark purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates for outputs and KLEMS inputs by industry for the year 2011. Productivity in the U.S. exceeded that in Japan for the entire postwar period. In the 1980s and the 1990s, however, manufacturing productivity in Japan overtook the U.S. by a substantial margin. Over that same period, the gap in non-manufacturing productivity diminished, but not at the same rate as in manufacturing. Between 1991 and 2015, U.S. productivity growth exceeded that of Japan in manufacturing. Because the gap in non-manufacturing productivity remained stable over the period, the overall productivity gap widened.

"Productivity Growth in Asia and its Country Origins"

Koji Nomura

Des Kusum Das (eds.) Productivity Dynamics in Emerging and Industrialized Countries (Routledge) 81 - 112 2018.04

Research paper (other academic), Single Work

Recovery from the global financial crisis of 2008-09 has been notably slow in the European economy, with its growth rate for 2010-14 steady at 0.5 percent per annum on average, relative to 2.1 percent growth in the pre-crisis period of 2000-07 (as represented by 15 member countries of EU prior to enlargement). In contrast, the United States has managed to raise its growth rate to 1.9 percent for 2010-14, and is beginning to return to its long-term growth track. The Asian economy, which has become increasingly autonomous from the Western economies and even contributed to stabilizing the global economy at the time of the global financial crisis, has been maintaining a stable economic growth of 5.3 percent per annum on average during 2010-14. Yet, this represents a slowdown of 1 percentage point from the level recorded in the pre-crisis period. Our study indicates that it is mainly due to the reduction in the growth of total factor productivity (TFP) of the Asian economy.

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"Long-term Economic Growth and Energy Productivity Improvement in Japan - Changes in Energy Quality and Industry Outputs" (in Japanese)

Koji Nomura

RCGW Discussion Paper (Research Center of Global Warming, Research Institute of Capital Formation, Development Bank of Japan) ( 61 ) 2018.03

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Single Work

本稿は1885–2016年における日本経済の長期エネルギー生産性の推移を概観しながら、とくに第II期：高度経済成長期（1955–73年）、第III期：オイルショック後（1973–90年）、第IV期：ポストバブル経済期（1990–2008年）、そして第V期：ポスト世界金融危機（2008–16年）の4期間において、電力化の進行などエネルギー品質の変化や、産業構造の変化を明示的に考慮に入れたうえでのエネルギー生産性を測定し、その産業起因を分析することを目的としている。マクロレベルでの見かけ上の生産性改善の黄金期は第III期にみられるものの、エネルギー品質や産業構造の変化を統御すれば、生産性改善のピークはむしろ第II期であり、エネルギー多消費産業が相対的に拡大しながらもエネルギー生産性の改善を伴うものであったことが示される。第II期の年率2.0%から、第III期には年率1.5%、低成長となる第IV期では年率0.1%へと減速するが、第V期においては再び年率1.6%への回復している。しかしその要因分析によれば、それは必ずしも持続的な要因ではない。一定の仮定に基づけば将来におけるエネルギー生産性改善は年率0.2–0.6%と予測される。

"Measuring Quality-adjusted Labor Inputs in South Asia, 1970–2015"

Koji Nomura and Naoyuki Akashi

KEO Discussion Paper (Keio Economic Observatory, Keio University) ( 143 ) 2017.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work, Lead author, Last author, Corresponding author

This paper attempts to adjust labor input for quality change over time, and quantify its impact on the TFP growth estimates, in six South Asian countries, i.e. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, covering the period of 1970–2015. This work requires employment data differentiated into labor categories and their corresponding wage estimates for each of these countries. The database we compile are country’s employment and wage matrices cross-classified by four attributes, namely, gender, education, age, and employment status. Our findings suggest that it is significant to account for labor quality change. In the whole period of our observation, labor quality growths are considerable in all six South Asian countries included in this study, ranging from 0.7% per year on average in Bangladesh to 1.9% in Nepal, compared to the annual growths in total hours worked ranging from 1.4% in Sri Lanka to 2.6% in Bhutan. The changes in labor quality explain 27–46% of the quality-adjusted labor input (QALI) growth in the South Asian countries, implying downward revisions to their TFP growths estimated without considering the changes in labor quality of 0.4–1.1 percentage points per year on average.

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"Towards Improvement in Measurement of Wholesale and Retail Margin Rates in Japan"

Koji Nomura, Kozo Miyagawa, and Sonoe Arai

Economic Statistics Research (Keizai Sangyo Toukei Kyokai) 45 ( Ⅲ ) 23 - 52 2017.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

"Are Japan's Wholesale and Retail Prices Higher than Those in the United States? Estimation of margin rates using microdata from the Census of Commerce"

Koji Nomura and Kozo Miyagawa

RIETI Discussion Paper (The Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI)) 17-J-026 2017.03

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

"Can Improvement in Energy Productivity Sustain in UK and Germany?" (in Japanese)

Koji Nomura

RCGW Discussion Paper (Research Center of Global Warming, Research Institute of Capital Formation, Development Bank of Japan) ( 60 ) 2017.02

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Single Work

英独両国は、それぞれ1970年代後半および1980年代後半より、CO2排出とデカップリングした経済成長を実現してきた。とくに英国では、2000年以降にはエネルギー生産性の改善が年率3.1%へと加速し、それは1990年代の年率1.6%から倍増している。英国の経済成長率も年率1.7%と主要先進国の中で高いものの、生産活動におけるエネルギー生産性の大幅な改善は、近年のデカップリングの半分ほどを説明する要因となっている。独国ではエネルギー生産性の改善は英国での経験の半分ほどに留まるが、再生可能エネルギーが発電シェアの1/3ほどにまで拡大した現在、“Efficiency First”のモットーのもと、野心的な省エネ目標を次のエネルギー政策のコアとして設定している。日本も2030年に向けた「長期エネルギー需給見通し」では、年率2.3%ほどのエネルギー生産性の改善を目標としており、それはオイルショック後における日本経済の経験に匹敵する省エネを求めるものである。その実現可能性を考える上では、英独両国の経験から示唆を得られるであろう。
一国集計レベルで観測されるマクロのエネルギー生産性は、エネルギー価格変化や経済成長のパターンなどの経済的諸条件を背景として、生産構造の変化を反映した複合的な指標である。独国では、ミクロレベルでは省エネ事例が喧伝されるものの、2000–14年における年率1.5%のエネルギー生産性の改善は過去の経験値を上回るものではなく、また産業を細分化した本稿での測定によれば、その改善の2/3以上が産業構造要因に起因するものと評価される。この期間、賃金上昇抑制によって独国経済における内需の拡大は限定的であり、経済成長の半分は外需に依存している。英国に比して製造業が順調に成長した独国経済においても、個々の製造業におけるエネルギー生産性に大きな改善は見出せない。
英国の2000–14年における年率3.1%という高いエネルギー生産性の改善は、本稿での産業構造要因の統御によっては年率1.5%へと半減し、残されたエネルギー生産性改善の過半はサービス業での改善に起因する。一方、サービス業におけるエネルギー生産性は分子である景気変動の影響を強く反映して変動することから、必ずしもエネルギー需要をもたらさない生産拡大による同指標への影響を取り除くような試算によれば、マクロで観察される年率3.1%改善の2/3以上はやはり生産構造に関する要因に起因するものと評価される。英国でのBrexit後の移民流入の抑制による経済成長の減速、サービス業の成長率の低下、製造業への回帰による生産構造の変化は、英国における今後のエネルギー生産性の改善を大きく減速させるものと考えられる。

"Redefining the Picture of Myanmar's Economic Growth: Trade, Production, and Jade"

Koji Nomura and Hiroshi Shirane

KEO Discussion Paper (Keio Economic Observatory, Keio University) ( 141 ) 2016.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

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"A Half Century of Trans-Pacific Competition: Price Level Indices and Productivity Gaps for Japanese and U.S. Industries, 1955-2012"

Dale W. Jorgenson, Koji Nomura, and Jon D. Samuels

D. W. Jorgenson et al (eds.) The World Economy – Growth or Stagnation? (Cambridge University Press) 469 - 507 2016.11

Research paper (other academic), Joint Work

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"A Growth Accounting Framework for the Kingdom of Bhutan, 1990–2014"

Koji Nomura

Development Policy and Analysis Division, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) 2016.06

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Single Work

The purpose of this study is to develop a comprehensive time-series database on outputs, intermediate inputs, and labor and capital inputs by industry and to provide a first result of the growth accounting framework for the Kingdom of Bhutan during 1990–2014. In particular, the hydropower electricity generation has had a considerable impact not only on the production-side of GDP, but also on the demand-side of GDP in the recent Bhutanese economic growth. Our growth accounting framework is designed to identify the impacts by electricity.
The structure of this report is as follows. In section 2, the time-series Supply and Use Tables (SUT) are newly developed, sustaining the basic consistency with the Bhutan system of national accounts (BTSNA). The development of the time-series use tables enables to provide the comprehensive estimates of prices and quantities in outputs and intermediate inputs (energy, material, and service) by industry. In the SUT, the economic transaction between Druk Green Power Corporation (DGPC) as a producer of hydropower electricity and Bhutan Power Corporation (BPC) as a distributor of electricity is described, sustaining a consistency with the physical tables in the Electricity Account by NSB (2015).
In section 3, this study newly develops the labor database consisting of the number of workers, hours worked per worker, and hourly wage, which are cross-classified by gender, education attainment, age, and employment status by industry. Based on the data we develop, the time-series estimates of compensation of employees (COE) are estimated and the quality-adjusted labor inputs (QALI), as an appropriate measure of labor inputs recommended in the 2008 SNA are estimated in each industry.
In section 4, the time-series matrices of investment and capital stock by type of assets and industry are newly developed. Based on the developed time-series use tables and capital stock matrices, the rate of returns are estimated endogenously by industry. Using the estimated use costs of capital by type of assets and industry, capital services by industry are estimated.
In section 5, based on the estimated outputs and capital, labor energy, material, and service (KLEMS) inputs for Bhutan, the TFP growths by industry are developed for the whole periods of our observation of 1990–2014. The first set of the results at the industry and the aggregate levels are introduced. References and the details of the estimated tables are presented in sections 6 and 7, respectively.

"Use of General Equilibrium Model for Evaluating Japan's Energy" (in Japanese)

Koji Nomura

Energy and Resources (Japan Society of Energy and Resources) 37 ( 1 ) 43 - 47 2016.01

Research paper (scientific journal), Single Work

"Electricity Prices and Structural Changes in the 2000s in Italy" (in Japanese)

Koji Nomura

RCGW Discussion Paper (Research Center of Global Warming, Research Institute of Capital Formation, Development Bank of Japan) ( 54 ) 2015.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Single Work

"A Half Century of Trans-Pacific Competition: Price level indices and productivity gaps for Japanese and U.S. industries, 1955-2012"

Dale W. Jorgenson, Koji Nomura, and Jon D. Samuels

RIETI Discussion Paper (The Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI)) 15-E-054 2015.05

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

"Energy Efficiency Improvement and Technical Changes in Japanese Industries, 1955-2012"

Yoko Konishi and Koji Nomura

RIETI Discussion Paper (The Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI)) 15-E-058 2015.05

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

"The Japan-U.S. Price Level Index for Industry Outputs"

Koji Nomura and Kozo Miyagawa

RIETI Discussion Paper (The Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry (RIETI)) 15-E-059 2015.05

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work

"Measurement of Quality-Adjusted Labor Input in Japan, 1955–2012" (in Japanese)

Koji NOMURA and Hiroshi Shirane

KEO Discussion Paper (Keio Economic Observatory, Keio University) ( 133 ) 2014.12

Research paper (bulletin of university, research institution), Joint Work, Lead author, Last author, Corresponding author

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